Vygotsky’s Theory

Vygotsky’s Theory Explain and Evaluate Vygotskys Theory of the Role of Language in Childrens Cognitive Development Vygotsky described developmental changes in childrens thinking in terms of cultural tools; they use these to make sense of their world. Generally, they use technical tools to change objects or gain mastery over the environment. Moreover, they used psychological tools to organise behavior or thought. According to Vygotskys view, society shapes a childs mind through the transmission of tools which are appropriate for their culture. Both the culture and the childs experiences are necessary to understand childrens cognitive development (â€Å"Social Development Theory,† n.d.) Vygotskys theory was an attempt to explain awareness the product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language or first words, peers or adults are noticing the first utterance and the purpose of communication but after they recognize that they become internalized and allow â€Å"inner speech† (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). Vygotsky believed that language was one of the most important psychological tools that effects childrens cognitive development. He identified that there are three different stages in the childrens use of language. Firstly, language is an essential factor for communication (social speech). Next, children begin to use egocentric or private speech to control their own thinking. The last stage is language development. Children use verbal thoughts to guide what they are thinking and their actions. (referance). Vygotsky also believed that language and thought first become independent after them being interdependent. He suggested that attainment of a new word was the beginning of the development of a concept. This is supported by a classic study by Carmichael (1932) who gave participants one of two labels for certain drawings. A kidney shape was described either kidney bean or canoe. Following that participants were asked to draw the shape. If the drawing was different form their label according to which label they had been given. As a result of this words can help us to remember things. On the other hand, Sinclair- de -Zward (1969) tried to teach children who could not use comparative terms that were not in their vocabulary. (p116). Such as, bigger or shorter, she found that there was very little improvement in their ability to conserve. The major theme of Vygotskys theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. (p57). Moreover, Vygotsky also identified three concepts in particular for cognitive development to proceed effectively. â€Å"The zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent assistance† (Raymond, 2000, p.176). The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based on the learners ZPD (Chang, Sung, Chen, 2002). The first is the Zone of proximal development. This zone describes the range of difficult tasks or it is very hard for the learners complete this task alone. However, learners can complete this task with appropriate assistance or someone who is more knowledgeable. Thus according to Vygotsky, cognitive development will occur when a learner is confronted by a task that lies within the zone, if a task is easy to complete for task learners then no cognitive development will occur. Also if the task is too hard for a learner to complete the task alone or even with assistance then no cognitive development will occur. (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). Evidence for ZPD was produced by McNaughton and Leyland (1990). They observed young children working with their mothers on jigsaw puzzles of increasing difficulty and then after one week the child was working on their own. The children reached higher difficulty when working with their mother. Thus it is explaining their ZPD. The Zone of Proximal Development was related to a kind of scaffolding which is used by the mothers. The mothers were worried about keeping their child on task. During this time generally mothers were focused on helping the children solve the puzzle for themselves, Previous studies looked at middle- income families. Researchers suggested that using different ZPD â€Å"region of sensitivity to instruction,† this term using for mothers and preschoolers in a copying task and it is help to predict childrens subsequent skills on this task. Furthermore, researchers found some differences in how well mothers change their level of encouragement style based on the childs performance (â€Å"i.e., providing less support after the child succeeded and more support after failure† and these differences were also helping to predict a childrens ability to gain understanding and learn information . (Wood et al., 1976; Wood Middleton, 1975). The second concept is that the scaffolding which describes the nature of the assistantce given by the more knowledgeable person. In this time the learner completes the task with the Zone of Proximal development (with assistance). Infants cognitive development depends on the assistance level. If the assistance is great at first and then it is slightly reduced as the learners skill improves, ultimately, the learner will be able to complete the task but the cognitive development will only continue if the task is replaced with another task or a more complex task which is modified to the new zone. (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the â€Å"role of teachers and others in supporting the learners development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level† (Raymond, 2000, p. 176).An important aspect of scaffolding instruction is that the scaffolds are temporary. As the learners abilities increase the scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable other is progressively withdrawn. Finally the learner is able to complete the task or master the concepts independently (Chang, Sung, Chen, 2002, p. 7). Therefore, the goal of the teacher when using the scaffolding teaching technique is for the student to become an independent and self- regulating learner and problem solver (Hartman, 2002). There is one study which examined the relation of maternal scaffolding and childrens attention regulation abilities in preschool children from low-income families within the context of a parent-child interaction task and in a child-alone task. According to this maternal scaffolding behaviors are different between mothers of children with attention regulation skills. For example, whose children show poor attention regulation skills, it emerges that parent and child interactions are more likely to engage verbally with their children, more strategic questions, â€Å"verbal hints and verbal prompt† (Olson and Platt, 2000, p.180). The amount of childrens attention regulation skills is related to the mothers level of scaffolding to predict child performance when they are alone to complete a task. Attention regulation skills are also related to independent performance when contexts including high maternal scaffolding. Findings provide important information parents promote attention regulation skills in children especially who are at risk for poor academic outcomes (Blair, 2002; Sethi, Mischel, Aber, Shoda, Rodriguez, 2000). The current study focused on a parent-child puzzle matching task to understand how children regulate their attention process when with their mother and when alone. How specific mothers behavior are related to childrens abilities to understand to regulate their own behavior and transfer these abilities to independent tasks. Researchers especially focused on verbal behaviors of mothers which are related to childrens attention regulation skills. (Norman, Breznitz, 1992) Researchers have focused on different socioeconomic status in families. An empirical research has exposed that there has been significant differences in interactional characteristics in families of different socioeconomic levels (Gottfried, 1984; Hart Risley, 1992, 1995; Heath, 1989). According to research results show that different socioeconomic status has been shown to influence the nature parent-child interactions. Another research was done by Wood (1976) who observed children aged 4-5 who were working with their mother on problem solving tasks. Some mothers gave verbal encouragement and others more specific help including demonstrations of what to do. The most effective strategy was combined both general and specific instructions, the mother was adapting to the learners achievement and failures. The mother gave instructions when the learner had difficulty but mothers gave general encouragement when the child was coping well. Kopp (1987) reported that specific types of control technique used by caregivers affected childrens self regulation skills. For instance, middle income families who encouraged their children to be independen,t their children were more likely to have low rate on impulsivity, problems of cconcentration and hyperactivity, and high on self-control measures. Similarly, Grolnick and Ryan (1989) have found that high levesl of parental support of independence was associated with more self regulation and they are more likely to less acting behavior. Based on these studies, the amount of caregiver control affects childs behavior and it is also related to childrens self- regulation abilities. When children get older parents give their children a number of responsibilities for example, children become independent regulators of their own thinking processes. According to Vygotsky (1978) view of socio-cognitive transaction makes it easy to improve childrens cognitive development is the ability to become same structure situation like an adults, it is depends to the childs ability levels. The third concept is psychological tools give another reason that â€Å"social interaction† is an essential factor in cognitive development. Psychological tools are â€Å"intellectual mechanisms or operations† which people use to examine their environment and interact with others. Here is some examples of psychological tools â€Å"written language, symbols, maps and scientific method and oral language† (Gredler and Shields, 2004). Evaluation of Vygotskys theory; There has been very little empirical investigation research on Vygorskys theory however there are much more research on Piagets theory. Further limitation relates to Vygotskys social emphasis. Whereas Piagets give minimise attention to social influences, Vygotskys give too much weight to social influences. There has been also some strengths, for example, Vygotskys approach provides an association between social and cognitive domains. (Vygotsky, 1978) There are a number of important distinctions between Piagets and Vygotskys theories. The most important ones are that teachers worry about the role of language and learning in development. But Piaget believed that egocentric speech is not a useful function in young childrens development. Vygotsky argued that egocentric speech is the way children recognise and regulate their thoughts and actions. Piaget claimed that childrens development is limited and it is associated with what children are able to learn from social experiences (Vygotsky, 1978) Vygotsky( 1934/1986) disagree with Piagets conclusions. Language helps children to think about mental abilities, behaviors and select courses of action. He believed that it is the foundation for all higher cognitive processes including controlled attention, deliberate memorization, recall categorization, planning problem solving, abstract reasoning and self reflection. Vygotskys view is that children speak themselves for self guidance. When they get older they find some tasks easier, their self directed speech isinternalised as salient in inner speech and the internal speech verbal dialogs people always carry on while thinking and acting in everyday situations. ( Vygotsky, 1986) To conclude vygotskys theory of socio-cultural theory is important to understand child cognitive development. Especially, he divided into three concepts which gave more clear information and each zone gives completely different information. However there have been some negative aspects of this theory, it does not tell how children internalize social experience to advance their mental functioning. He just gave a little information about biological contributions to childs cognition. However, his theory emphasised cognitive change Vygotsky theory leads up to expect diverse path of development. ( Vygotsky, 1978) References: Blair, C. (2002). Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of childrens functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111−127. Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Chang, K., Chen, I., Sung, Y. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education 71(1), 5-23. Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding Cooperative Learning. Human Learning and Instruction (pp. 23-69). New York: City College of City University of New York. Hart, B., Risley, T. R. (1992). American parenting of language-learning children: Persisting differences in family-child interactions observed in natural home environments. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1096−1105. Hart, B., Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Heath, S. B. (1989). Oral and literate traditions among Black Americans living in poverty. American Psychologist, 44, 367−373. Kopp, C. B. (1987). The growth of self-regulation: Caregivers and children. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Contemporary topics in developmental psychology (pp. 34−35). New York: Wiley. Gredler, M., Shields, C. (2004). Does no one read Vygotskys words? Commentary on Glass Commentary on Glassman. Educational Researcher, 33(2), 21 25. Gottfried, A. W. (1984). Home environment and early cognitive environment. Integration, meta-analysis, and conclusions. In A. W. Gottfried (Ed.), Home environment and early cognitive development: Longitudinal research (pp. 329−342). Orlando, FL: Academic Pres Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with childrens self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 143−154 Norman, G., Breznitz, Z. (1992). Difference in the ability to concentrate in first grade Israeli pupils of low and high socioeconomic status. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153, 5−17. Olson, J. and Platt, J. (2000). The Instructional Cycle. Teaching Children and Adolescents with Special Needs (pp. 170-197). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild Disabilities (pp. 169-201). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn Bacon, A Pearson Education Company. Sethi, A., Mischel, W., Aber, J. L., Shoda, Y., Rodriguez, M. L. (2000). The role of strategic attention deployment in development of self-regulation: Predicting preschoolers delay of gratification from mother-toddler interactions. Developmental Psychology, 36, 767−777. Social Development Theory. (No date). Retrieved November 3, 2002, from http:// tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html Norman, G., Breznitz, Z. (1992). Difference in the ability to concentrate in first grade Israeli pupils of low and high socioeconomic status. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153, 5−17. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, Lev. 1986. Thought and Language (translated by Alex Kozulin). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. (Original work published 1934.) Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J., Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100. Wood, D., Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181−191.

Political and social changes in Rome as a result of the wars

The most obvious were the increased role of the senate, the influx of wealth that arrived in Rome and the introduction of Hellenize. It is believed that these changes were not just the beginnings of the downfall of the republic, but of the entire Roman Empire. Indeed, Assault, writing in the first century BC states that although â€Å"every land and sea lay open to her. It was then that fortune turned unkind and confounded all her enterprises. The senate was already a powerful body in Romeos government, these events, forever greatly increased its power. Constitutionally, the senate was an advisory body; the Alex Horniness, passed in 287, gave the power to make decisions to the Continuum Plebes. In practice, however, the senate was the governing body of Rome and It ruled unchallenged throughout the second century. This power was obtained through Its successful control over Romeos wars of expansion. In fact, the crisis caused by the Second Punic War helped the senate's rise to power m ore than any other single factor.The senate consisted of ex-magistrates who had an enormous amount of experience in government. These senators took control of Rome and showed real leadership, particularly after Canaan. They provided loans, slaves for the army and food and arms, thus ending the war successfully and increasing their prestige. The Influence the senate held over the magistrates was another factor In their Increased power. Even though Roman magistrates were not obliged to seek or follow the senate's advice, they would usually submit all important issues to the senate before showing them to the assemblies.The senators would have been able to keep a tight control on the actions of the magistrates even if they didn't volunteer heir plans. The senate could find another magistrate to veto any unsatisfactory motion they put forward. The Alex Villa Annalist was passed in 181 as a check on any over-ambitious magistrate, It gave the senate the power to control the actions of cons uls and procrastinates such as Gossip Africans who ruled unchallenged in Spain for 10 years.The influx of wealth that arrived in Rome led to the deterioration of traditional values. The booty and riches from the successful wars against Hannibal and Macedonia allowed the upper classes to spend lavishly on food, houses, works of art and other expensive goods. This led to a gradual decline In morals as their wealth led to increased greed and laziness. The upper classes â€Å"treated their wealth as a mere plaything† according to Assault.There were attempts from the conservative faction of the senate, specifically from Coat the Elder, to limit the extravagance of the ruling classes. The laws they put in place were, however, very difficult to enforce and, unsurprisingly, quite unpopular. An example of this is the Poplar law which was passed In 215. It attempted to restrict the amount of Jewelry and expensive clothing o the civilized society he expected of Rome, especially during o ne of the most taxing wars in Romeos history.As the nobles of Rome competed for popularity among the masses, they poured more and more money into the public games. This is another example of the deterioration of the moss moratorium as the new events became more violent and brutal, this had an adverse affect on the character of those who watched them. The money that flowed into Rome as a result of these wars was therefore a huge factor in the deterioration of the traditional Roman way of life. The wars with Greece exposed the Romans to the cultural influences of the Hellenic world.Perhaps the most important outcome of the wars of expansion was the introduction of Hellenize to Rome, the extent to which the Romans were affected by the Greeks is shown in the writing of Horace who states that â€Å"captive Greece had captivated her barbarous conqueror†. Greek culture influenced many things about Roman daily life but the most predominant aspects were religion and education and the reaction to those changes was twofold. Plutarch says that many upper class citizens were happy to see their sons educated in Greek culture and religion, two of these philistines were Gossip Africans and Flamingos.The conservatives, such as Coat, were worried that the ambitions of the younger generations were tainted by Greek learning and that their new ideas would undermine the existing customs in Rome. The result was a widespread blend of traditional Roman values and the new Hellenic ideas which produced a Graces-Roman society. The wars of expansion were a massive event in shaping the political and social structure of Rome. This is shown through the increase in the power of the senate, the influx of wealth that flowed into Rome and the introduction of Hellenize to Roman society.

Factors that Impact Demand for an iPad

Internal: Pricing decisions Unique features (Apple's iPad was one of the first tablet to have the app world where user can download applications such as games or books and use it right away after download has been completed. ) External: Availability of competitors' products Price of substitute products Incomes of potential customers There are several essential factors that impact the demand for iPads, these are: price of the product (internal variable), price of substitute products, and incomes of otential customers (external variables).As the primary principle of the demand function stated, that if price of a certain product or service increases, the quantity of that same product will decrease. Most, if not all, customers make their purchasing decision of a product based on its price (all other things held constant). If there are two similar products but one is more expensive than the other, it is rational to choose for the cheaper product. Now, how can an expensive product such as iPad still reate a lot of demand in the market?The answer that I could think of is product uniqueness and product loyalty. When Apple's iPad first came out in 2010, this product was not cheap. But it was due to its unique features that the competitors did not have that made iPad successful. Today, there are a lot of tablets that have about the same features as the iPad and offer a lower price. I would say that product loyalty is also one of the reasons why there are still demands for ‘Pads.

Melting Point Vs. Freezing Point

You may think the melting point and freezing point of a substance occur at the same temperature. Sometimes they do, but sometimes they dont. The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid phase and the  solid phase are equal and at equilibrium. If you increase the temperature, the solid will melt. If you decrease the temperature of a liquid past the same temperature, it may or may not freeze! This is supercooling and it occurs with many substances, including water. Unless there is a nucleus for crystallization, you can cool water well below its melting point and it wont turn to ice (freeze). You can demonstrate this effect by cooling very pure water in a freezer in a smooth container to as low as −42 degrees Celcius. Then if you disturb the water (shake it, pour it, or touch it), it will turn to ice as you watch. The freezing point of water and other liquids may be the same temperature as the melting point. It wont be higher, but it could easily be lower.